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M A Y 1 9 9 9  LTHOUGH the role of mother can safely be said to be grounded in biology, the role of father is to a great degree socially constructed. In the words of the anthropologist Margaret Mead, "Somewhere at the dawn of human history, some social invention was made under which males started nurturing females and their young." The male role was founded on the provision of resources; "among human beings everywhere [the male] helps provide food for women and children." Being a learned behavior, the male role in nurturing the family is subject to disruption. Mead wrote,
But the evidence suggests that we should phrase the matter differently for men and women -- that men have to learn to want to provide for others, and this behaviour, being learned, is fragile and can disappear rather easily under social conditions that no longer teach it effectively.The role of fathers, in other words, varies by culture and tradition from intense involvement in the nurturing and education of children to a more distant presence as protector and disciplinarian to the near absence possible for a paycheck provider. It takes a great deal of effort to separate a mother from her newborn infant; in contrast, it often takes a fair amount of effort to involve a father with his. | ||||||||||||
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From Atlantic Unbound: Books & Authors: "What We Owe" (February, 1997) An interview with Barbara Dafoe Whitehead, the author of The Divorce Culture. From the archives: "Dan Quayle Was Right," by Barbara Dafoe Whitehead (April,1993) The social-science evidence is in: though it may benefit the adults involved, the dissolution of intact two-parent families is harmful to large numbers of children. Moreover, the author argues, family diversity in the form of increasing numbers of single-parent and stepparent families does not strengthen the social fabric but, rather, dramatically weakens and undermines society. "Raising Kids," by James Q. Wilson (October, 1983) "More mothers and fathers may have found children to be a burden as the traditional social and moral supports for family life have become more precarious and the opportunities for distraction and entertainment outside the family have become greater. Parents who once just got by as child-rearers now find themselves slipping over the edge as it becomes harder, or less necessary, just to get by." "Divorce and the Family in America," by Christopher Lasch (November,1966) "The fact that divorce is no longer novel or shocking merely testifies further, presumably, to the decay of the old order, the attitudes and institutions of an earlier time, which now evoke mingled nostalgia and contempt." See an index of Atlantic articles about the family. |
When we put kinship and family in this context, it is easier to understand why
nuclear families have started to break apart at such a rapid rate over the past
two generations. The family bond was relatively fragile, based on an exchange
of the woman's fertility for the man's resources. Prior to the Great
Disruption, all Western societies had in place a complex series of formal and
informal laws, rules, norms, and obligations to protect mothers and children by
limiting the freedom of fathers to simply ditch one family and start another.
Today many people have come to think of marriage as a kind of public
celebration of a sexual and emotional union between two adults, which is why
gay marriage has become a possibility in the United States and other developed
countries. But it is clear that historically the institution of marriage
existed to give legal protection to the mother-child unit, and to ensure that
adequate economic resources were passed from the father to allow the children
to grow up to be viable adults. What accounts for the breakdown of these norms constraining male behavior, and of the bargain that rested on them? Two very important changes occurred sometime during the early postwar period. The first involved advances in medical technology -- that is, birth control and abortion -- that permitted women to better control their own reproduction. The second was the movement of women into the paid labor force in most industrialized countries and the steady rise in their incomes -- hourly, median, and lifetime -- relative to men's over the next thirty years. The significance of birth control was not simply that it lowered fertility. Indeed, if the effect of birth control is to reduce the number of unwanted pregnancies, it is hard to explain why its advent should have been accompanied by an explosion of illegitimacy and a rise in the abortion rate, or why the use of birth control is positively correlated with illegitimacy across the OECD. The main impact of the Pill and the sexual revolution that followed it was, as the economists Janet Yellen, George Akerlof, and Michael Katz have shown, to dramatically alter calculations about the risks of sex, and thereby to change male behavior. The reason that the rates of birth-control use, abortion, and illegitimacy went up in tandem is that a fourth rate -- the number of shotgun marriages -- declined substantially at the same time. By these economists' calculations, in the period 1965-1969 some 59 percent of white brides and 25 percent of black brides were pregnant at the altar. Young people were, evidently, having quite a lot of premarital sex in those years, but the social consequences of out-of-wedlock childbearing were mitigated by the norm of male responsibility for the children produced. By the period 1980-1984 the percentages had dropped to 42 and 11, respectively. Because birth control and abortion permitted women for the first time to have sex without worrying about the consequences, men felt liberated from norms requiring them to look after the women they got pregnant. The second factor altering male behavior was the entry of women into the paid labor force. That female incomes should be related to family breakdown is an argument accepted by many economists, and elaborated most fully by Gary Becker in his work A Treatise on the Family (1981). The assumption behind this view is that many marriage contracts are entered into with imperfect information: once married, men and women discover that life is not a perpetual honeymoon, that their spouse's behavior has changed from what it was before marriage, or that their own expectations for partners have changed. Trading in a spouse for someone new, or getting rid of an abusive mate, had been restricted by the fact that many women lacking job skills or experience were dependent on husbands. As female earnings rose, women became better able to support themselves and to raise children without husbands. Rising female incomes also increase the opportunity costs of having children, and therefore lower fertility. Fewer children means less of what Becker characterizes as the joint capital in the marriage, and hence makes divorce more likely. A subtler consequence of women's entering the labor force was that the norm of male responsibility was further weakened. In divorcing a dependent wife, a husband would have to face the prospect of either paying alimony or seeing his children slip into poverty. With many wives earning incomes that rivaled those of their husbands, this became less of an issue. The weakening norm of male responsibility, in turn, reinforced the need for women to arm themselves with job skills so as not to be dependent on increasingly unreliable husbands. With a substantial probability that a first marriage will end in divorce, contemporary women would be foolish not to prepare themselves for work.  The decline of nuclear families in the West had strongly negative effects on social capital and was related to an increase in poverty for people at the bottom of the social hierarchy, to increasing levels of crime, and finally to declining trust. But pointing to the negative consequences for social capital of changes in the family is in no way to blame women for these problems. The entry of women into the workplace, the steady closing of the earnings gap with men, and the greater ability of women to control fertility are by and large good things. The most important shift in norms was in the one that dictated male responsibility for wives and children. Even if the shift was triggered by birth control and rising female incomes, men were to blame for the consequences. And it is not as if men always behaved well prior to that: the stability of traditional families was often bought at a high price in terms of emotional and physical distress, and also in lost opportunities -- costs that fell disproportionately on the shoulders of women. On the other hand, these sweeping changes in gender roles have not been the unambiguously good thing that some feminists pretend. Losses have accompanied gains, and those losses have fallen disproportionately on the shoulders of children. This should not surprise anyone: given the fact that female roles have traditionally centered on reproduction and children, we could hardly expect that the movement of women out of the household and into the workplace would have no consequences for families. Moreover, women themselves have often been the losers in this bargain. Most labor-market gains for women in the 1970s and 1980s were not in glamorous Murphy Brown kinds of jobs but in low-end service-sector jobs. In return for meager financial independence, many women found themselves abandoned by husbands who moved on to younger wives or girlfriends. Because older women are considered less sexually attractive than older men, they had much lower chances of remarrying than did the husbands who left them. The widening of the gap among men between rich and poor had its counterpart among women: educated, ambitious, and talented women broke down barriers, proved they could succeed at male occupations, and saw their incomes rise; but many of their less-educated, less-ambitious, and less-talented sisters saw the floor collapse under them, as they tried to raise children by themselves while in low-paying, dead-end jobs or on welfare. Our consciousness of this process has been distorted by the fact that the women who talk and write and shape the public debate about gender issues come almost exclusively from the former category. In contrast, men have on balance come out about even. Although many have lost substantial status and income, others (and sometimes the same ones) have quite happily been freed of burdensome responsibilities for wives and children. Hugh Hefner did not invent the Playboy lifestyle in the 1950s; casual access to multiple women has been enjoyed by powerful, wealthy, high-status men throughout history, and has been one of the chief motives for seeking power, wealth, and high status in the first place. What changed after the 1950s was that many rather ordinary men were allowed to live out the fantasy lives of hedonism and serial polygamy formerly reserved to a tiny group at the very top of society. One of the greatest frauds perpetrated during the Great Disruption was the notion that the sexual revolution was gender-neutral, benefiting women and men equally, and that it somehow had a kinship with the feminist revolution. In fact the sexual revolution served the interests of men, and in the end put sharp limits on the gains that women might otherwise have expected from their liberation from traditional roles.  OW can we rebuild social capital in the future? The fact that culture and public policy give societies some control over the pace and degree of disruption is not in the long run an answer to how social order will be established at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Japan and some Catholic countries have been able to hold on to traditional family values longer than Scandinavia or the English-speaking world, and this may have saved them some of the social costs experienced by the latter. But it is hard to imagine that they will be able to hold out over the coming generations, much less re-establish anything like the nuclear family of the industrial era, with the father working and the mother staying at home to raise children. Such an outcome would not be desirable, even if it were possible.We appear to be caught, then, in unpleasant circumstances: going forward seems to promise ever-increasing levels of disorder and social atomization, at the same time that our line of retreat has been cut off. Does this mean that contemporary liberal societies are fated to descend into increasing moral decline and social anarchy, until they somehow implode? Were Edmund Burke and other critics of the Enlightenment right that anarchy was the inevitable product of the effort to replace tradition and religion with reason? The answer, in my view, is no, for the very simple reason that we human beings are by nature designed to create moral rules and social order for ourselves. The situation of normlessness -- what the sociologist Emile Durkheim labeled "anomie" -- is intensely uncomfortable for us, and we will seek to create new rules to replace the ones that have been undercut. If technology makes certain old forms of community difficult to sustain, then we will seek out new ones, and we will use our reason to negotiate arrangements to suit our underlying interests, needs, and passions. To understand why the present situation isn't as hopeless as it may seem, we need to consider the origins of social order per se, on a more abstract level. Many discussions of culture treat social order as if it were a static set of rules handed down from earlier generations. If one was stuck in a low-social-capital or low-trust country, one could do nothing about it. It is true, of course, that public policy is relatively limited in its ability to manipulate culture, and that the best public policies are those shaped by an awareness of cultural constraints. But culture is a dynamic force, one that is constantly being remade -- if not by governments then by the interactions of the thousands of decentralized individuals who make up a society. Although culture tends to evolve more slowly than formal social and political institutions, it nonetheless adapts to changing circumstances. | ||||||||||||
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From the archives: "The Biological Basis of Morality," by Edward O. Wilson (April, 1998) Do we invent our moral absolutes in order to make society workable? Or are these enduring principles expressed to us by some transcendent or Godlike authority? The natural sciences are telling us more and more about the choices we make and our reasons for making them. |
What we find is that order and social capital have two broad bases of support.
The first is biological, and emerges from human nature itself. There is an
increasing body of evidence coming out of the life sciences that the standard
social-science model is inadequate, and that human beings are born with
pre-existing cognitive structures and age-specific capabilities for learning
that lead them naturally into society. There is, in other words, such a thing
as human nature. For the sociologists and anthropologists, the existence of
human nature means that cultural relativism needs to be rethought, and that it
is possible to discern cultural and moral universals that, if used judiciously,
might help to evaluate particular cultural practices. Moreover, human behavior
is not nearly as plastic and therefore manipulable as their disciplines have
assumed for much of this century. For the economists, human nature implies that
the sociological view of human beings as inherently social beings is more
accurate than their own individualistic model. And for those who are neither
sociologists nor economists, an essential humanity confirms a number of
commonsense understandings about the way people think and act that have been
resolutely denied by earlier generations of social scientists -- for example,
that men and women are different by nature, that we are political and social
creatures with moral instincts, and the like. This insight is extremely
important, because it means that social capital will tend to be generated by
human beings as a matter of instinct. The biological revolution that has been under way in the second half of the twentieth century has multiple sources. The most startling advances have been made at the level of molecular biology and biochemistry, where the discovery of the structure of DNA has led to the emergence of an entire industry devoted to genetic manipulation. In neurophysiology great advances have been made in understanding the chemical and physiological bases of psychological phenomena, including an emerging view that the brain is not a general-purpose calculating machine but a highly modular organ with specially adapted capabilities. And finally, on the level of macro behavior, a tremendous amount of new work has been done in animal ethology, behavioral genetics, primatology, and evolutionary psychology and anthropology, suggesting that certain behavioral patterns are much more general than previously believed. For instance, the generalization that females tend to be more selective than males in their choice of mates proves to be true not only across all known human cultures but across virtually all known species that reproduce sexually. It would seem to be only a matter of time before the micro and macro levels of research are connected: with the mapping of complete gene sequences for fruit flies, nematodes, rats, and eventually human beings, it will be possible to turn individual gene sequences on and off and directly observe their effects on behavior. The second basis of support for social order is human reason, and reason's ability to spontaneously generate solutions to problems of social cooperation. Mankind's natural capabilities for creating social capital do not explain how social capital arises in specific circumstances. The creation of particular rules of behavior is the province of culture rather than nature, and in the cultural realm we find that order is frequently the result of a process of horizontal negotiation, argument, and dialogue among individuals. Order does not need to proceed from the top down -- from a lawgiver (or, in contemporary terms, a state) handing down laws or a priest promulgating the word of God. Neither natural nor spontaneous order is sufficient in itself to produce the totality of rules that constitutes social order per se. Either needs to be supplemented at crucial junctures by hierarchical authority. But when we look back in human history, we see that self-organizing individuals have continuously been creating social capital for themselves, and have managed to adapt to technological and economic changes greater than those faced by Western societies over the past two generations. | ||||||||||||
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From the archives: "And Now for the News," by Robert D. Kaplan (March, 1997) The disturbing freshness of Gibbon's Decline and Fall. |
 ERHAPS the easiest way to get a handle on the Great Disruption's future is to look briefly at great disruptions of the past. Indices of social order have increased and decreased over time, suggesting that although social capital may often seem to be in the process of depletion, its stock has increased in certain historical periods. The political scientist Ted Robert Gurr estimates that homicide rates in England were three times as high in the thirteenth century as in the seventeenth, and three times as high in the seventeenth as in the nineteenth; in London they were twice as high in the early nineteenth century as in the 1970s. Both conservatives decrying moral decline and liberals celebrating increased individual choice sometimes talk as if there had been since the early 1600s a steady movement away from Puritan values. But although a secular trend toward greater individualism has been evident over this long time period, many fluctuations in behavior have suggested that societies are perfectly capable of increasing the degree of constraint on individual choice through moral rules.
It would be wrong to assert that the greater social order that came to prevail
in Britain and America during the Victorian period was simply the result of
changing moral norms. In this period both societies established modern police
forces, which replaced the hodgepodge of local agencies and poorly trained
deputies that had existed at the beginning of the nineteenth century. In the
United States after the Civil War the police focused attention on such minor
offenses against public order as public drinking, vagrancy, loitering, and the
like, leading to a peak in arrests for this kind of behavior around 1870.
Toward the end of the century many states had begun to establish systems of
universal education, which sought to put all American children into free public
schools -- a process that began somewhat later in Britain. But the essential
change that took place was a matter of values rather than institutions. At the
core of Victorian morality was the inculcation of impulse control in young
people -- the shaping of what economists today would call their preferences -- so that they would not indulge in pleasures like casual sex, alcohol, and
gambling.There are other examples from other cultures of moral renovation. The feudal Tokugawa period in Japan -- when power was held by various daimyo, or warrior lords -- was one of insecurity and frequent violence. The Meiji Resto-ration, which took place in 1868, established a single centralized state, and stamped out once and for all the kind of banditry that had taken place in feudal Japan. The country developed a new moral system as well. We think of a custom like the lifetime employment that is practiced by large Japanese firms as an ancient cul-tural tradition, but in fact it dates back only to the late nineteenth century, and was fully im-plemented among large companies only after the Second World War. Before then there was a high degree of labor mobility; skilled craftsmen in particular were in short supply and constantly on the move from one company to another. Large Japanese companies like Mitsui and Mitsubishi found that they could not attract the skilled labor they needed, and so, with the help of the government, they embarked on a successful campaign to elevate the virtue of loyalty above others.  OULD the pattern experienced in the second half of the nineteenth century in
Britain and America, or in Japan, repeat itself in the next generation or two?
There is growing evidence that the Great Disruption has run its course, and
that the process of re-norming has already begun. Growth in the rates of
increase in crime, divorce, illegitimacy, and distrust has slowed
substantially, and in the 1990s has even reversed in many of the countries that
experienced an explosion of disorder over the past two generations. This
is particularly true in the United States, where levels of crime are down a
good 15 percent from their peaks in the early 1990s. Divorce rates peaked in
the early 1980s, and births to single mothers appear to have stopped
increasing. Welfare rolls have diminished almost as dramatically as crime
rates, in response both to the 1996 welfare-reform measures and to the
opportunities provided by a nearly full-employment economy in the 1990s. Levels
of trust in both institutions and individuals have also recovered significantly
since the early 1990s.
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From Atlantic Unbound: Flashback: "Crime and Punishment," (November, 1996) The crime rate is the lowest it's been in years. Are we finally conquering the problem? Or are we about to experience the biggest crime wave yet? Related link: "Teen Sex Ain't What it Used to Be," by Russ Bynum (September, 1998) "It is the first time this decade that more than half of America's high school students are saying no to sex [according to] the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention." An Associated Press article posted at abcnews.com. |
How far might this re-norming of society go? We are much more likely to see
dramatic changes in levels of crime and trust than in norms regarding sex,
reproduction, and family life. Indeed, the process of re-norming in the first
two spheres is already well under way. With regard to sex and reproduction,
however, the technological and economic conditions of our age make it extremely
doubtful that anything like a return to Victorian values will take place.
Strict rules about sex make sense in a society in which unregulated sex has a
high probability of leading to pregnancy and having a child out of wedlock is
likely to lead to destitution, if not early death, for both mother and child.
The first of these conditions disappeared with birth control; the second was
greatly mitigated, though not eliminated, by a combination of female incomes
and welfare subsidies. Although the United States has cut back sharply on
welfare, no one is about to propose making birth control illegal or reversing
the movement of women into the workplace. Nor will the individual pursuit of
rational self-interest solve the problems posed by declining fertility: it is
precisely the rational interest of parents in their children's long-term life
chances that induces them to have fewer children. The importance of kinship as
a source of social connectedness will probably continue to decline, and the
stability of nuclear families is likely never to fully recover. Those
societies, such as Japan and Korea, that have until now bucked this trend are
more likely to shift toward Western practices than the reverse. Some religious conservatives hope, and liberals fear, that the problem of moral decline will be resolved by a large-scale return to religious orthodoxy -- a Western version of the Ayatollah Khomeini returning to Iran on a jetliner. For a variety of reasons this seems unlikely. Modern societies are so culturally diverse that it is not clear whose version of orthodoxy would prevail. Any true orthodoxy is likely to be seen as a threat to large and important groups in the society, and hence would neither get very far nor serve as a basis for a widening radius of trust. Rather than integrating society, a conservative religious revival might in fact accelerate the movement toward fragmentation and moral miniaturization: the various varieties of Protestant fundamentalism would argue among themselves over doctrine; orthodox Jews would become more orthodox; Muslims and Hindus might start to organize themselves as political-religious communities, and the like. A return to religiosity is far more likely to take a more benign form, one that in some respects has already started to appear in many parts of the United States. Instead of community arising as a by-product of rigid belief, people will come to religion because of their desire for community. In other words, people will return to religion not necessarily because they accept the truth of revelation but precisely because the absence of community and the transience of social ties in the secular world make them hungry for ritual and cultural tradition. They will help the poor or their neighbors not necessarily because doctrine tells them they must but rather because they want to serve their communities and find that faith-based organizations are the most effective means of doing so. They will repeat ancient prayers and re-enact age-old rituals not because they believe that they were handed down by God but rather because they want their children to have the proper values, and because they want to enjoy the comfort and the sense of shared experience that ritual brings. In this sense they will not be taking religion seriously on its own terms but will use religion as a language with which to express their moral beliefs. Religion becomes a source of ritual in a society that has been stripped bare of ceremony, and thus is a reasonable extension of the natural desire for social relatedness with which all human beings are born. It is something that modern, rational, skeptical people can take seriously in much the way that they celebrate national independence, dress up in traditional ethnic garb, or read the classics of their own cultural tradition. Understood in these terms, religion loses its hierarchical character and becomes a manifestation of spontaneous order. | ||||||||||||
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From the archives: "Welcome to the Next Church," by Charles Trueheart (August, 1996) Seamless multimedia worship, round-the-clock niches of work and service, spiritual guidance, and a place to belong: in communities around the country the old order gives way to the new. "Can We Be Good Without God?", by Glenn Tinder (December,1989) Many of the virtues of liberal democracy, such as a belief in the dignity and equality of all people, have strong roots in the union of the spiritual and the political achieved in the vision of Christianity. Can such values survive without these particular roots? An essay on the political meaning of Christianity. |
Religion is one of the two main sources of an enlarged radius of trust. The
other is politics. In the West, Christianity first established the principle of
the universality of human dignity, a principle that was brought down from the
heavens and turned into a secular doctrine of universal human equality by the
Enlightenment. Today we ask politics to bear nearly the entire weight of this
enterprise, and it has done a remarkably good job. Those nations built on
universal liberal principles have been surprisingly resilient over the past 200
years, despite frequent setbacks and shortcomings. A political order based on
Serb ethnic identity or Twelver Shi'ism will never grow beyond the boundaries
of some corner of the Balkans or the Middle East, and could certainly never
become the governing principle of large, diverse, dynamic, and complex modern
societies like those that make up, for example, the Group of Seven. There seem to be two parallel processes at work. In the political and economic sphere history appears to be progressive and directional, and at the end of the twentieth century has culminated in liberal democracy as the only viable choice for technologically advanced societies. In the social and moral sphere, however, history appears to be cyclical, with social order ebbing and flowing over the course of generations. There is nothing to guarantee upturns in the cycle; our only reason for hope is the very powerful innate human capacity for reconstituting social order. On the success of this process of reconstruction depends the upward direction of the arrow of History. Francis Fukuyama is the Hirst Professor of Public Policy and the director of the International Commerce and Policy Program at George Mason University, in Virginia. His article in this issue will appear, in somewhat different form, in his book The Great Disruption, to be published by The Free Press, a division of Simon & Schuster, next month. Illustrations by Brian Cronin Copyright © 1999 by The Atlantic Monthly Company. All rights reserved. The Atlantic Monthly; May 1999; The Great Disruption; Volume 283, No. 5; pages 55-80. |
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